How Have Other Peoples Readings Of “Translations” Helped You Essay

How Have Other Peoples Readings Of â€Å"Translations† Helped You To Understand The Contexts Of The Play In Scene 1? The first act of Friel’s play â€Å"Translations† features many different contexts ranging from the infamous potato famine to hinting at the possible forming of the present day IRA (the Donnelly twins,) and politics. One of the major contexts that also coincide with the title of the play is translation. The translation of Irish name into English name. I only realised this by reading a Canadian writers essay on language and its importance in â€Å"Translations†. Especially in relation to Owen and his take on the Irish language. Where as many Irish people, at the time, saw the English to be taking away Irelands identity by colonizing it and changing names, language etc. Owen seems to be naà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ve and miss this. By changing place names they are not only taking away identity but also something more intimate, a part of their lifestyle. Hence when the English mistake Owens name to be Roland it seems to be Manus who is more frustrated by this whereas Owen says â€Å"Owen – Roland- what the hell. It’s only a name. It’s the same me, isn’t it.† The importance (or un-importance, depending how you want to perceive it) of names is brought up firstly at the start of the play when Manus is teaching Sarah to speak. It is important to note that the first thing Manus teaches her to say is her name, also her identity. Owens ignorance for the colonisation is shown again when he says, â€Å"my job is to translate the quaint, archaic tongue you people persist in speaking into the Kings good English.† One quote from the particular essay by the Canadian writer says † The Gaelic tongue is becoming obsolete in the wake of colonisation, Owen has boarded the ship of progress disassociating himself from his foundation.† Similar, in a sense, is Maire’s view on the English language and that it should be learnt. Maire’s view links in with another context shown in the play and that is the focus on dead languages, such as Greek and Latin and soon to be dead, Gaelic. By researching Irish history at the time the play is set, it is easier to gather an understanding for the wanting of Maire to learn English. Dr Leon Litvack’s paper on the historical and colonial context of Friel’s Translations illustrates this. Maire’s reference to Daniel O’Connel, â€Å"the disillusioned veteran who founded the catholic association,† O’Connel preached that it was necessary to learn English in order to allow Ireland to progress in a quickly modernising western world. Hence Maire wanting to learn English rather than a dead language such as Greek or Latin as this will be necessary if she is going to immigrate to the United States. One interpretation of the play is the focus on schools. Being set in an illegally run hedge school, a place where Catholics turned to for education after the penal laws were instated. The time the play is set is during a major transition period when the English are trying to get rid of hedge schools and introduce new national schools. It has been shown by statistics that half a million Irish children received illegal tuition through hedge school. This links in with the whole idea of translations, as at the new national schools, where you were forced to go to by law, the language you would be taught in would be English, no longer Gaelic. To some people This was a problem but to others like Maire, English was seen as the language of opportunity. â€Å"The old language was a barrier to modern progress† she quotes from the famous Daniel O’Connel. There is an increasing amount of tension being built up in the first act with regards to the devastating potato famine. There is a sense of dramatic irony being shown as well. Seeing as the play is set in the 1830s this is only a short time before the potato blight occurred in 1845.this disaster caused the population of Ireland to drop from eight million down to six million. It is believed that one million people died of starvation while another million were forced to immigrate to start new lives in Canada and America etc. It is obvious to the audience that the famine will occur but the characters in the play are blind to this even though the clues are all there. This is why the audience tend to sympathise for their negligence. Even when Jimmy Jack suggests to Doalty he should plant something other than potatoes, which is the correct thing to do, he just comically shrugs off the remark, â€Å"Too lazy be Jesus to wash himself and he’s lecturing me on agriculture!† Bridget also brings up the subject of the blight and its distinctive, ominous â€Å"sweet smell,† only to be aggressively dismissed by Maire. â€Å"Sweet smell! Sweet smell! Every year at this time somebody comes back with stories of the sweet smell. Sweet God, Did the potatoes ever fail in Baile Beag? Well, did they ever-ever? Never!† This is where the audience really begin to sympathise, as they know of the catastrophic effects that will soon occur. Although Friel has not written the play from a biased or political point of view it is still possible to find the idea of the modern day IRA being formed in this play. This becomes more noticeable as the play progresses. Although it is still possible to get an idea of this from Doaltys seemingly harmless antics with the British soldiers and his constant dodging of questions involving the Donnelly twins. Manus â€Å"aren’t they at home?† Doalty â€Å"No.† Manus â€Å"Where are they then?† Doalty â€Å"How would I know?† Even the stage directions in this particular section lead us to believe something suspicious is going on, Doalty begins whistling through his teeth. Suddenly the atmosphere is silent and alert. To be able to understand that this may be about the IRA, background reading about the times the play is set and when the play was written (the 1970s, a time of great trouble and political unrest in Northern Ireland.) is necessary. The 1970s were a time when tension between Northern Ireland and England was at a peak. This also was around the time of the infamous â€Å"Bloody Sunday†. So it is possible that Friel may have tried to incur some of this in to the play. Although Seamus Deane says â€Å"Translations† is a â€Å"sequence of events in history which are transformed by his writing into a parable of events in the present day.† The play has also been described as an enlightening metaphor for the situation in Northern Ireland. The many contexts featured in the play are extremely important as they add a framework or shell to the play allowing it to go in many directions. Although it features so many different contexts Friel is quoted to say that â€Å"Translations† is â€Å"to do with language and only language.† Therefore not historical contexts. To become more familiar with the play and its many contexts background reading and the reading of other people’s interpretations are essential. By reading theses criticisms I have become more aware at how Friel has made the play so effective by setting it in the specific era. By doing this it makes it easier for the audience to see how the recent condition of Ireland spiralled way out of control originating in the mid 1800s. It also gives greater depth to the tragedy that will eventually befall and that the audience know the tragedy is coming but not on so many levels. Overall it is essential to at least to some form of background reading in order to understand the play to a higher level.

Decolonization and Revolution Essay

From 1945 and beyond, leaders have selected different paths to affect change. Some encouraged independence through violence, peaceful actions, diplomacy, and the commitment of their struggling nation. Others sparked revolutions by appealing to the peoples’ needs. Through policy, and sometimes uniting a people, trailblazers changed the face and structure of their nation. A column from a journalist during the time period would help to see a broader perspective during such varying and exciting time. Decolonization, revolution, and nation building are all goals of any effective leader willing to make a change. Spanning from 1945 to 1975, countless independence movements have changed societies across the globe, led by leaders and organizations who all yearned for better. The â€Å"Declaration Against Colonialism,† adopted by the United Nations, took a firm stand on the demise of colonialism. The document petitioned for a definite end to colonialism and encouraged self-determination, stating that all human beings have a right to their own societal and political choices. Such a statement coming from an organization comprised and backed by countless nations surely stands its ground. The United Nations, supporting the end of colonialism, inspired countries to strive for freedom through the organizations obvious power. It also displayed the end of a colonial era, seeing as though many colony-yielding nations were members of the UN. (Doc 1). Ho Chi Minh, Vietnamese nationalist, too felt the need for freedom. Minch expressed the Vietnamese’s determination to end French colonization i n their country. Minch made it clear that violence would be condoned and encouraged to win this battle. Ho Chi Minch embodied Vietnams’ fighting will for a separation and willingness to shed blood in the process. (Doc 2). In a similar suit, Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya shared his hate for colonialism and his approval of violence. He claims that Kenya belongs to its inhabitants, not colonizers who held his people back. Kenyatta believed that the only way to approach self-rule is through bloodshed. (Doc 6). Mohandas Gandhi of India had a quite parallel approach. From an excerpt written by him, it is seen that  Gandhi believed the path to independence was paved with nonviolence and self-sacrifice. Gandhi in many ways led Indians to Independence. Even after his death, he was a guiding light for those who coveted an India without the British. (Doc 3). Kwame Nkrumah, leader of Ghana’s independence, expressed his goal dismay for colonialism. He saw the system as contractual and exploitive to his country. He calls the independence movement â€Å"the greatest awakening ever seen on this earth†. By portraying colonialism as a heinous and abusive practice, Nkrumah led Ghana to independence. (Doc 5). A letter from the British monarchy as a response to colonial independence would give insight as to whether they see themselves as negatively as their colonies do. In South Africa, China, and Cuba, social and political revolutions pioneered by inspiring people occured. Nelson Mandela, speaking on his fight against apartheid, conveyed his commitment to the cause. Mandela dreamed of a South Africa where equality and democracy was not a scarcity. Unfortunately, his reality at the time was far different. Nelson Mandela was willing to die for the cause. His dedication inspired others to continue to fight for justice in South Africa. This infectious determination is was enabled Mandela to lead the campaign for termination of this policy. (Doc. 4). In China, Mao Zedong led his country to the communist revolution. In a speech he delivered, he vocalized a goal to build faith in the party. The method applied by Zedong focused on uniting China under one belief in order to implement communist ideas in the country, widely changing the country’s structure. (Doc 7). At his defense trial, Cuban revolution leader Fidel Castro appealed to those struggling in his country. He spoke to those who hoped for a brighter future and who have been betrayed by their country. By addressing their battle, Castro urged them to fight for a better Cuba. His relentless and undying commitment ultimately granted Castro his wish for a revolution. (Doc 8). An additional document consisting of a diary entry from a Chinese citizen during the communist revolution would create a clearer vision as to how convincing Mao Zedong truly was. Some modern leaders look more inward as to their nations’ policies and people to affect change. Hosni Mubarak, former President of Egypt, aimed to unite his country and better certain systems to strengthen the nation. When in a hard and confusing time, Mubarak provided Egypt with a steady guiding hand. In the midst of this chaos, instead of addressing the questions and wants of the people, Hosni Mubarak demanded they offer themselves to supply the needs of their country and support their leader. This mindset calmed Egyptians as Mubarak reopened Egypt to the Arab world, tried to reaffirm the constitution and judicial system, and tackled social issues. (New Leaders of Nations #1). Former prime minister of India Narasimha Rao was first questioned by the Indian people as to his ability to lead. This was turned around as he implemented many policy changes in India. India, fairly unfamiliar with outside involvement, now encouraged foreign investment. Rao’s programs for economic growth and investment, both foreign and Indian, faced opposition from possible disorder. However, Rao’s use of intellectual thinking and a new, open India, aided his decisions. A documentary depicting evolving countries as they face modern challenges would be helpful in grasping what qualities leaders who create change possess. Those who create ripples of change in their societies all have varying methods and roles. Some strive for revolution, others independance or policy reboots. It is important to keep in mind that each situation creates unique circumstances; some changes require new methods. To further understand which methods are suitable for particular situations, letters from different leaders who have created change would be helpful.

Caroline Kennedy - Japan National Press Club Address

Ambassador Caroline Kennedy Address at the National Press Club of Japan delivered 17 December 2015, Tokyo, Japan All my senior colleagues from the U.S. Government [off mic, removes translation headset] head over to the Press Club at some point during their visit, and are grateful for the warm welcome, the frank discussion of issues, and the opportunity you provide for us to communicate with the people of Japan. Democracies cant function without a strong relationship between a free and independent press, and a transparent and accountable government. Im continually impressed by the serious coverage, and the wide variety of media outlets that exist here in Japan. And one of the good things is that, unlike at home, I cant understand most of what you say. Preparing for the opportunity to speak with you has given me the chance to reflect on my two years in Japan and on the year ahead and I’d like to share some thoughts with you today. First and foremost, the U.S.-Japan alliance is as strong as it has ever been. Just last weekend, the Yomiuri/Gallup poll showed that U.S.-Japan relations were in better shape than at any time since the poll was first taken 15 years ago. Thanks to the efforts of generations of Japanese and Americans in government, business, science, architecture, anime, martial arts our two countries have created a partnership that not only enriches the lives of our citizens, but plays a critical role in addressing global challenges. Our bilateral partnership is now at the center of powerful multilateral coalitions. Smaller more vulnerable countries need our help to succeed, and sometimes to survive. Problems like climate change, terrorism, poverty, disease, and nuclear non-proliferation cannot be addressed by any one country acting alone. They are global concerns that need international action. The U.S. and Japan are called upon not just to engage, but to lead. As two of the most powerful democracies in the world, we must never forget that our shared values of freedom, democracy, and the rule of law are our greatest strength. There are countless examples to prove this point, but let me mention some from just the past few weeks: Five days ago, JAXA and NASA astronauts landed safely after six months together on the International Space Station. Last month, the U.S. government began exploring the possibility of bringing Maglev to Maryland. And just last weekend, our countries were leaders at the historic COP21 talks where we committed to double our R budget[s] for renewable energy over the next five years. Each of these initiatives is built on our shared commitment to innovation and building a better, safer world. Thats why other countries look to the United States and Japan for advice, investment, and security. Two years ago when President Obama appointed me to this position, he said he wanted to send a strong message that the Rebalance to Asia was a core element of the U.S. foreign policy, and that it is built upon the unshakeable foundation of the U.S.-Japan alliance. On his State visit here in 2014, the President reiterated that the United States is a Pacific nation, that we are committed to the defense of Japan. He emphasized that this is a transformational moment for the alliance and we need to make the most of this once-in-a-generation opportunity. The President knows Prime Minister Abe to be a dynamic leader with a forward-looking vision for his country. Hes impressed with the Prime Ministers economic revitalization program and commitment to the empowerment of women. President Obama also stressed that improved relations between Japan and its neighbors is in the national interest of the United States and asked me to help move this process forward. As the first working mother to serve as U.S. Ambassador here, the President asked me to reach out to Japanese women and families to share the U.S. experience. And he asked my children to encourage their generation to invest in the future of this critically important alliance. The President hoped that sending the daughter of a Pacific War veteran to serve as Ambassador during this 70th anniversary year would remind people in both countries of the power of reconciliation and the possibilities for peace. Ive been profoundly moved by the special place that President Kennedys memory holds in the hearts of the Japanese people. Im inspired that his call to service resonates so deeply here. The warm welcome that my family has received has deepened our commitment to live up to this legacy and do our utmost to bring our two great nations even closer. Over the past two years, thanks to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ive welcomed former American POWs to the Embassy. Theyre about the same age as my father would be, and they bring the same message of reconciliation. Whether they were captured in China, survived Bataan and Corregidor, or were shot down over Tokyo despite their suffering, they also tell of kindnesses received from Japanese soldiers who shared food with them and took great risks to help them survive. For me, personally, the most powerful moment of last year was in March when I met the family of the captain of the Japanese destroyer that sank my fathers PT boat. Like my father, Captain [Kohei] Hanami went home after the war to enter public service serving as the mayor of his town in Fukushima. Seeing the photo from the 1950s that my father inscribed, To Captain Hanami late enemy, present friend was a powerful reminder that even during times of conflict, we have more in common than divides us. And only a few weeks later in April, on a grand and public scale, I watched Prime Minister Abe deliver an historic address to a Joint Session of Congress after laying a wreath at Arlington Cemeterys Tomb of the Unknown Soldier and the World War II Memorial. That eloquent speech made a powerful impression on the American people. In it, the Prime Minister called our relationship an alliance of hope. And I have been struck in the recent months by the ways in which thats true. In the area of security, the passage of the Peace and Security [Preserved] Legislation and the revised Defense Guidelines1 have provided a strong foundation for our future cooperation in an increasingly tense regional environment. America has forward-deployed its most advanced radar, ships, and aircraft. Our dedicated service men and women are stationed here to put their lives on the line for the defense of Japan. And yesterday our two nations advanced an agreement in principle on a new Host Nation Support package. This five-year agreement represents another significant achievement for the alliance. The United States appreciates the support and cooperation which will underscore the Rebalance to Asia and demonstrate the enduring strength of our alliance. At joint-use bases in Misawa and Sasebo, and joint exercises like Yamasakura, I have seen the mutual respect our forces have for each other. Their strong real-world relationship is nowhere more in evidence than during the humanitarian missions weve conducted in the Philippines and Nepal. This cooperation has its roots in Operation Tomodachi, conducted in Tohoku after the tragedies of 3/11. And now, the United States and Japanese forces are working to save lives and bring hope to other countries suffering from natural disasters. In addition to bilateral security challenges, our governments must confront 21st century issues of terrorism and cybersecurity, and we must prevent the militarization of space. Were expanding our security cooperation to include regional partners like Australia and India who share the same democratic values. Strong ties between Japan and Korea are also critical to these efforts. Yet even as we increase our security cooperation and expand its scope, were mindful of its impact on local communities particularly in Okinawa.2 Thats why we have worked with the Government of Japan to develop and implement the Okinawa Consolidation plan3 which, when complete, will result in the strategic realignment of our forces across the Pacific region, the return of 68% of the land south of Kadena, and 4,000 additional hectares of environmentally pristine land, almost 20% of the total U.S. holdings. The West Futenma Housing Project, returned last March, is being developed into a state-of-the-art medical facility. And just about 10 days ago, we announced the early return of three parcels of land in Naha that will accelerate that process and reduce traffic congestion. We are going to keep working at this because we are grateful to the people of Japan for welcoming generations of U.S. service members, and we strive to be good neighbors in return. In the area of economics, our countries are closer than ever. The United States is the Number One foreign direct investor in Japan, and Japan is the second-largest investor in the United States. Companies like Boeing, Sandisk, and 3M perform state-of-the-art manufacturing here, and Apple is building a major research center in Yokohama. Together, we are expanding the frontiers of knowledge in brain science, regenerative medicine, and robotics. Disney Princesses and baseball are big business in both countries. Our strong bilateral relationship is now going global as our two countries led the region to conclude the largest, most far-reaching, high-standard trade agreement ever negotiated: TPP. This agreement will create good jobs and export opportunities for our farmers, manufacturers, and small businesses. It will lift millions out of poverty and into the middle class on both sides of the Pacific. It will promote our core values by banning child workers, raising labor standards, and requiring state-owned enterprises to compete fairly. TPP will stimulate invention and creativity in all 12 countries by protecting intellectual property. And it has strong, enforceable provisions to prevent wildlife trafficking, illegal fishing, and preserve biodiversity. As other nations join TPP and these provisions also become part of upcoming agreements with Europe, our shared values will define the economic architecture of this region and the world for years to come. And to anyone who wants to ask the follow-up question, I can answer that right now: Yes, Congress will pass TPP. Looking ahead, perhaps the most important issue for our countries to tackle together is climate change. As President Obama said of the historic agreement reached in Paris, We met the moment. But he acknowledged that our work is just beginning. The U.S. and Japan must be leaders in the movement toward a low-carbon future and help developing countries do the same. Clean and renewable energy will provide millions of jobs in a market with an estimated nine billion users by 2020 [2030?]. American and Japanese companies are already developing the cars, batteries, and power-grids of the future. As Secretary Kerry said, How we implement this agreement, how we set our targets and build it out, will determine whether we are able to address one of the most complex challenges humankind has ever faced.4 We have the solutions and the capital to implement and scale game-changing solutions right now. It makes business sense; it makes environmental sense; and its the right thing to do. In order to tackle this issue, and so many others, we need to enlist the next generation. They need to understand why their parents and grandparents invested so much in the U.S.-Japan alliance, and see it as something amazing they want to be part of. The best way to recruit them is to provide opportunities for them to get to know each other, to discover and explore life in each others countries. At the U.S. Embassy, we are making an all-out effort to meet the goal set by President Obama and Prime Minister Abe of doubling student exchange numbers by 2020. We conduct outreach programs at high schools and universities. We have a college advising system across Japan. We are energizing Japanese alumni of U.S. schools as the best advocates for study abroad. And were trying to reach out to younger students in new and different ways and involve them in issues they care about. (Im not supposed to go too fast.) [Pauses for possible translation lag] For example, Im now working with high school students in Tokyo, Okinawa, Korea, and the South Bronx in a teleconference exchange where students share their fears, hopes, and dreams for the future. We also connected an elementary school in Kyoga Misaki with one in Manchester, Massachusetts. Theyre collaborating through technology on the study of an unusual natural resource that they have in common a beach with Singing Sands. We hope both these efforts, along with more traditional ones, will inspire young Japanese and Americans to explore the wider world as they get older. The Japanese government has made significant resources available for study abroad, but we need the business community and academic institutions to keep pushing forward on this agenda.5 I know the world today can seem like a daunting place, and there are people in both our countries that would rather turn inward and stay focused at home. But we need to show our children that thats not who we are. As Japan assumes a seat on the [United Nations] Security Council for the 11th time and prepares to host the G-7, 2016 promises to be a a year when our two nations can work even more closely on our shared priorities. We are the largest contributors to the United Nations and the largest donors to the Green Climate Fund. Our healthcare experts coordinate closely in West Africa to battle Ebola. Last March, our First Ladies announced a partnership between the Peace Corps and JPOV [Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers] to educate girls in Southeast Asia. Our diplomats worked closely in recent months to implement the Iran nuclear agreement. Together, were combating terrorism and helping millions of desperate refugees build a better life. We are the people who step up. We shoulder the burdens of leadership because we have benefitted from the dialogue, partnership, and rules-based order that emerged from World War II. Prime Minister Abe calls it a proactive contribution to peace. President Obama laid out his vision at the United Nations when he said, To believe in the dignity of every individual, to believe we can bridge our differences, and choose cooperation over conflict that [is] not weakness, that is strength. It [is] a practical necessity in this interconnected world. Americans and Japanese can take great pride in the U.S.-Japan alliance. Its been built through countless acts of reconciliation and friendship. Its sustained by respect and hard work. It brings knowledge and opportunity. Our countries have distinct national cultures, myths, and traditions. These differences make the closeness of our partnership even more remarkable in todays fragmented world. Together, our nations demonstrate the power of history to bring hope, the power of knowledge to bring progress, and the power of freedom to bring peace. As citizens of the U.S. and Japan, weve been given great gifts. I hope to be worthy of them as we build the alliance of the future. Thank you. Chairman Nishimura [as translated]:6 Thank you very much, Ambassador. You touched on the 70th anniversary, TPP, and youve already answered one of the questions, the follow-up questions, so thank you very much for covering diverse topics. And we have collected many [question] cards and representatives are now checking them to ask questions to you now. Question [as translated]: [inaudible self identification] newspapers. Our time is limited, so lets start with a hard question. I would like to ask you about politics and security. This year happens to be the 70th anniversary ofthe end of World War II, and you participated in memorial services in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, so I would love your comments on visiting those two [cities.] And the G-7 will be hosted in Japan this year, so what do you think about President Obama visiting those two cities? Would you recommend the President to visit those two cities? Thank you very much. Ambassador Kennedy: Visiting Hiroshima and Nagasaki I think is one of the most powerful experiences anyone can have. I first came there in 1978 with my uncle, Senator Kennedy, and now I visited with my children, and I had a chance to walk through the Peace Park, which I hadnt been able to do at the larger ceremonies. President Kennedys proudest achievement was the limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, so it has a great personal meaning for me as well. I know that President Obama is also committed to a world without nuclear weapons, and I think anyone who goes there feels like a renewed commitment to work for peace in any way that we can. As far as the Presidents visit there, I as you know, presidential scheduling is extremely complicated, and thats many months away, so I really cant really speculate on what would be possible. Question [as translated]: Thank you. Next on Okinawa, [an] Okinawa newspaper is asking me to ask [about] Okinawa. As as you referred to in your presentation, you talked about the return of lands south of Kadena, and you also participated in the memorial service this year. Okinawa has a unique history compared to other parts of Japan and has a high concentration of U.S. bases. So what do you think about this reality? Okinawa is opposing the landfill project and relocation of Futenma, so what do you think about this point? And if Japan were to propose a Plan B alternative to the Henoko plan, is the U.S. going to consider it? Thank you. Ambassador Kennedy: Well, Okinawa the United States, first of all, is works very hard to be a good neighbor, and we are very grateful to the people of Okinawa for the support that they have given to generations of U.S. service men and women. I visited there four or five times now, and Im always struck by the strength of the communities and as well as the commitment of our service men and women. We are working hard to reduce the impact of the bases. We understand how important this is. People worked very hard, considered many options, and developed this plan that I think is the best of any other plan that was considered. And I believe that we are at a turning point, and that once the next few years will be critical and once we are able to move MCAS Futenma out of Naha, that the situation will improve. And were committed to doing that. We are working hard to do it as fast as possible. We have taken these early land return steps, as you know, and we are working to give to return additional lands as well as to realign our forces. So I think the future will be better, and I think that that plan is the plan that we should implement as fast as possible. Question [as translated]: Next question, on refugees, Syrian refugees are flowing into Europe, and there was a terrorist attack in Paris, and even in the presidential election campaign, the refugee issue is under the spotlight right now. It is a political issue in Japan as well, so I would appreciate your perspective on the refugee issue. Thank you very much. Ambassador Kennedy: I think anyone who has turned on the television can see that this is becoming the humanitarian issue of our time. I mean, this is a huge crisis, and the United States is is working hard, and so is Japan. Were grateful for the major contributions that Japan has made to improve the lives of the refugees and support them. President Obama has been very clear that we are committed to destroying ISIL and that we must also welcome refugees into the United States and and not discriminate against any Muslim-Americans that are that are our neighbors and our friends. And so I think that this issue is going to be with us for some time, and all countries have an obligation to solve the underlying conflict that is causing this crisis as well as to help the families who are forced to leave their homeland. Question [as translated]: One last question: This year happens to be the 70th anniversary of the end of World War II, and Prime Minister Abe made a statement. And Ambassador, you expressed disappointment when Prime Minister Abe visited Yasukuni Shrine, but what do you think about his statement this year? Ambassador Kennedy: Well I was here for the year, and I watched the process that the prime minister conducted with a panel and discussion, and I thought that the the United States government welcomed the statement that he released, and it had a strong expression of remorse for the past suffering that was caused by Japan as well as a commitment to uphold previous government statements. So I think that the United States and all countries recognize that Japans record over the last 70 years has really been a model for all nations. Its contributed to peace and stability and played a great role internationally, and so I think that that the U.S. government, the President, and Secretary Kerryall issued statements of support for the prime ministers statement. Question [as translated]: Thank you.On TPP I have two questions. You said the Congress will pass TPP for approval, but the U.S. is heading towards the political season, and both parties are opposing the TPP. So why are you so optimistic about TPP? Next, on Japanese agriculture, Japanese farmers worry about losing markets against cheap foreign produce including [from] the United States, but there are some options for Japanese farmers to export overseas, so do you have any tips for Japanese farmers so that their produce may be welcomed in the United States? Thank you. Ambassador Kennedy: Well, if I can take the second question first, Japanese farmers produce the most amazing products among the most amazing products in the world, so no one but Japanese farmers could produce the peach-flavored strawberry in the winter. And I have met young Japanese farmers. I work with the EnGei Agricultural high school, and I see the young people there who are committed to careers in agriculture. They have They also take care of bonsai plants at the Embassy that they are lending to me. And Ive met with Future Farmers of Japan and [Future Farmers of] America, and I know that these partnerships have been going for 50 years or more. And so I have no doubt that Japanese farmers will succeed in within the TPP context. And there will be, you know, challenges, but I visited farms where many generations are working together and growing amazing things. Theyre selling directly to consumers. Theyre selling their products, you know, in innovative ways, so and I think that what they what they produce is so exceptional that Im confident that they will be successful. As far as TPP goes, trade agreements are never easy to pass, but the American they always do, and President Obama is absolutely committed to this agreement, and he has a very strong record of achievement on things that he cares deeply about, and so I have no doubt that when this all comes together that TPP will pass. As far as politics, thats something else. Question [as translated]: Thank you. Next, on women: So you said that you have been asked by the President to share your experience with the Japanese people, and when you look at the gender gap index, Japan is below 100th in the world. Bu what do you think could be the breakthrough for Japan to move forward with womens advancement in society? Thank you. Ambassador Kennedy: Well, the first of all let me say that this is an issue that the U.S. has to work on as well. We have not solved this problem. Its still too difficult to balance work and family in the United States, but I think that by sharing our experiences we all can hopefully do better. I dont think theres one thing one breakthrough. I think this is going to take a sustained effort, and its going to have to involve men, women, children, businesses, academia and I think that this is certainly something that is in the the long-term interest of Japan and the short-term interest of its families and workers. And I think the prime minister has set forward many of the measures that need to be implemented. People know what they are revisions in the tax code, legislation, flexibility in the labor market there are many, many things that we that we could name, but I think the main thing is the commitment to steady progress, and I the women that I have seen in Japan are so dynamic, and and I think that they really have the power to transform anything they set their mind to. So I am eager and hopeful that this will be a successful initiative. Ive seen progress since Ive been here, and Im, you know, honored to be a part of it and to to watch and cheer from the sidelines. Question [as translated]: Thank you. Ambassador, you touched upon student exchange. So some Japanese young people are inward-looking, so could you explain to them what could be the merits of studying in the United States or U.S. colleges? Ambassador Kennedy: Well, I understand why they dont want to leave Japan. Its really wonderful here, but I will say that I think that studying in another country is one of the most transformative experiences you can have, and everyone that Ive spoken to myself included who have spent time studying in another country find that it changes your life. It gives you great perspective on your home as well as the country in which youre studying, and it opens up possibilities for your future that you would have never considered. And I think that that its also true that more Japanese women than men study abroad, so I think and as companies globalize and the worlds more interconnected, I think that that Japan should take advantage of this great resource as well. I think for the for kids and for parents theres this is really a great adventure, and one of the things thats exciting about having children is is being part of their adventure, and I think that they usually come home, so I always say to parents not to worry. But to the kids I think its its really one of the greatest experiences you can have, and you will come home and find opportunities and success that you that are much greater than you would have had you not taken that chance. And so I think businesses really need to work on this and convince kids that they wont lose out in the job-recruitment cycle. And I think that universities need to work on it to make it easier for students to go back and forth. And I think were working at the Embassy to partner working with MEXT to create partnerships between institutions that will make it easier for students to transfer credits, to go back and forth, to have internships. And I think that what were seeing is that there are people who are interested in doing this, but we need to make it easier easier for them. And I would like to say that there are record numbers of Americans coming to Japan in the last few years, so we need to work on the Japanese numbers, but at least our message is getting through in the United States. [Formal presentation of gift to Ambassador Kennedy] Book/CDs by Michael E. Eidenmuller, Published by McGraw-Hill (2008) 1 PDF of Guidelines here (Source: www.us.emb-japan.go.jp) 2 There is considerable controversy, regionally and beyond, concerning U.S.-Japan consolidation efforts within the Okinawa Prefecture; see, for example, here, here, here, and here. 3 Consolidation Plan for Facilities and Areas in Okinawa.pdf (Source: www.mofa.go.jp) 4 Inexact quotation, provided the reference is to Secretary Kerrys COP21 Plenary Session remarks which ran how we implement our targets, how we build this agreement, how we build it out for each of our nations and how we strengthen it in the time ahead that is what will determine whether we’re actually able to address one of the most complex challenges humankind has ever faced. A Google search did not locate any alternative content attributable to Secretary Kerry which as closely resembled the comments cited by Ambassador Kennedy. Both sets of remarks, however, are substantially similar in meaning. 5 See, for example, these resources 6 Q transcription at this point forward from Japanese to English only is a combination of the above in-video recording translation and a translation provided by japan.usembassy.gov See also (offsite): The U.S.-Japan Alliance: Review of the Guidelines for Defense Cooperation.pdf (INSS Strategic Perspectives 18 March 2015) Audio Source: DVIDShub.net Image of Kennedy Source: japan.usembassy.gov Audio Note: AR-XE = American Rhetoric Extreme Enhancement U.S. Copyright Status: Text of address QA excluded and audio = Property of AmericanRhetoric.com. Image = Uncertain. [Chairman Nishimuras introductory remarks and formal introduction of Ambassador Kennedy] Ambassador Kennedy: Good Afternoon. Thank you for inviting me to this gathering. Id like to thank Managing Director [Yoshinori] Nakai for welcoming me here today and Chairman [Yoichi] Nishimura of the planning committee for serving as the moderator. And thank you all for coming.

Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 8

Case Study - Essay Example In this session we would be reviewing the leadership skills displayed by Navy commander D. Michael Abrashoff, in order to define and learn different theories of leadership. This review would be well backed by the statement of impact of these theories on the work force relating them to the leadership model of Navy commander D. Michael Abrashoff who captioned the three hundred highly skilled sailors of USS Benfold. This case study was selected, as the leadership skills which are being reviewed would fit into the improvisation methodology of any management scenario. The trait theory suggests that there are some identifiable qualities or characteristics that should be possessed by the leaders and the degree of efficacy of a leader would be directly proportional to the extent of these qualities or characteristics held by them. Some of the qualities which fall under the trait theory are as following A leader should be able to understand the context and content of his designation and assigned responsibilities. The dynamics of internal and external environmental variables which would affect the activities of the enterprise should be grasped well by the leader. It also implies to the technical competence and sound general education of the leader. The leadership quality of intelligence was reflected a number of times in the leadership model set by D. Michael Abrashoff while captioning the three hundred highly skilled sailors of USS Benfold, the U.S. Navys warship. His technical competence was proved as he had an excellent service record, combat experience, and had held prestigious posts in Washington, DC. Moreover his technical expertise had provided Benfold the reputation of being the best ship in the Pacific fleet. He could analyze the smartness and talent of his crew within no time and he viewed the internal and external environmental variables through the eyes of the crew. It was his ability to grasp the work situation realities,

History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 15

History - Essay Example This was the only immediate option for our survival as the owner of the farm we used to till included us on the list of peasant families that were to be removed from its custody due to extreme hardship (Curtis). When the entire Ireland experienced food shortage between 1845-1846 (Curtis), my husband’s illness worsened and he died at the height of the Great Famine. The extremely difficult life in Ireland at that time, leaving only in potato for subsistence (Curtis) had made the call of the Statue of Liberty irresistible. I soon decided to accept the opportunity to flee from the hunger which afflicted Ireland and the painful memory of my husband’s death. I boarded a ship to America on December, 1846 bringing along our five year-old boy, Oliver. After a â€Å"6 to 8 weeks† (â€Å"Irish Settlement†) voyage, my son and I safely arrived in America on February, 1847. We landed in New York and the America that met us was bustling with activity. I saw thousands of immigrants like myself willing to become â€Å"servants with a promise of land and a new life in the new country† (â€Å"Irish Settlement†). I desired to work in one of the many existing factories in New York but found myself wanting of job opportunities. I realized then that we arrived at a time when America was, as described by John Curl, on the brink of technological advancement in machinery thereby creating â€Å"unskilled laborers out of the formerly skilled workers.† Indeed, my son and I were welcomed in 1847 by an America that was buried in â€Å"depression, layoffs, wage cuts and failing strikes† (Curl). It was a terrible experience. I found myself competing with the â€Å"Native-born Americans† (Curl) for factory jobs and being a woman and an immigrant made it even more difficult. I then failed to find a job in New York. During our brief stay in New York, I heard many fellow immigrants recount their â€Å"helpless condition† in America upon arrival (Maguire, 1868). â€Å"Many families were

STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP - Essay Example At the beginning of the 20th century, IQ tests had been considered as the most valid measure of individual intelligence and potential to achieve success in life (Mandell & Pherwani 2003). However, IQ could not reflect the emotional and situational factors of leadership success (Mandell & Pherwani 2003). Today, research of how emotional intelligence and gender affect leadership styles is gaining momentum in organization studies and industrial psychology. More often than not, emotionally intelligent leaders are believed to possess an inherent capacity to perform better and transform the organization. Gender is claimed to predetermine the choice of particular leadership style. However, both assumptions have their strengths and limitations. Emotional intelligence and leadership styles That emotional intelligence (EI) and leadership style create a cohesive relationship has been widely documented. The body of empirical and theoretical literature examining the effects of EI on leadership style constantly expands. Emotionally intelligent leaders are generally considered to be happier than their non-emotional colleagues (Gardner & Stough 2002). Emotionally intelligent leaders are associated with greater workplace and organizational commitments and are believed to have emotions needed to improve the quality of decision making in organizations (Gardner & Stough 2002). Emotions have the potential to boost enthusiasm in followers and contribute to the development of sustained interpersonal relationships (Gardner & Stough 2002). These are the most popular claims highlighting the relationship between leaders and their emotions; but is everything as good as it seems? Generally, researchers recognize that EI does affect leadership styles. Of particular importance is the relationship between EI and transformational leadership (Mandell & Pherwani 2003). Really, transformational leaders usually display a greater extent of emotions than non-transformational leaders, and this fact has far-reaching implications for the effectiveness of their leadership decisions. EI enables transformational leaders to develop and articulate enthusiasm for the vision and mission (Mandell & Pherwani 2003). Emotions contribute to the development of charisma in leaders (Mandell & Pherwani 2003). Emotional leaders have better opportunities to develop trust and commitment among their followers. It is no wonder that EI is mainly associated with transformations and transformational leadership styles. Leaders who score high on emotional intelligence scale usually display better emotional recognition and expression that non-emotional leaders (Gardner & Stough 2002). They can eas ily identify their feelings and express these feelings to others. EI leaders have a capacity to incorporate their emotions in decision making and use these emotions for the benefit of their organization. In other words, emotionally intelligent leaders can use their emotions to direct and guide their cognition (Gardner & Stough 2002). Emotional intelligence greatly influences leadership style, because emotionally intelligent leaders can read other people’s emotions, identify and interpret them; more often than not, it is transformational leaders that accomplish this emotional job (Gardner & Stough 2002). Emotionally intelligent leaders also possess good emotional control and can manage their own and others’ positive and negative emotions (Gardner & Stough 2002). The main question is in whether the EI-leadership relationship is strong and what theoretical models (if any) can

The life of a nuer cow Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The life of a nuer cow - Essay Example They began an especially active migration about the mid 1800s. As they moved gradually east, they pushed the Anuak farther east into Ethiopia. During this period many Dinka people were incorporated into the Nuer community. Atuot and Nuer traditions indicate origins with the Dinka in what is now known as Western Nuerland. These traditions say the separation of the three occurred due to a dispute over cattle ownership.Like many of his pastoral neighbors, a Nuer man's dearest possession is his cattle. Life depends on cattle and a Nuer will risk his life to defend them or to raid his neighbor's cattle. The Nuer worldview is built around the herds and prestige is measured by the quantity and quality of the cattle a man owns. Men and women take the names of their favourite oxen or cows and prefer to be greeted by their cattle names. While they do engage in agricultural pursuits, the care of cattle is the only labour they enjoy. It is said that conversation on virtually any subject will ine vitably involve a discussion of cattle.The Nuer, a tall and very dark people, and are related to the Dinka, who live to their west, and their culture is very similar. The Nuer, call themselves Naath, meaning "human beings." The Nuer, Dinka and Atwot (Atuot) are sometimes considered one ethnic group.Their culture is organized around cattle. But since the Nuer people live in the Upper Nile valley, Nile perch is also an essential part of their economy. Grains and vegetables supplement this diet. None of the food commodities are produced for market purposes. Cattle are not primarily for food, but Nuer drink their milk. Meat is eaten at important celebrations when an animal is sacrificed. The Nuer living pattern changes according to the seasons of the year. As the rivers flood, the people have to move farther back from the river onto higher ground, where the women cultivate millet and maize while the men herd the cattle nearby. In the dry season, the younger men take the cattle herds closer to the receding rivers. Cooperative extended family groups live around communal cattle camps. Cattle play an important part in Nuer religion and ritual. Cows are dedicated to the ghosts of the owner's lineages and any personal spirits that may have possessed them at any time. The Nuer believe they establish contact with these ancestor ghosts and spirits by rubbing ashes along the backs of oxen or cows dedicated to them, through the sacrifice of cattle. No important Nuer ceremony of any kind is complete without such a sacrifice. NUER COW - 1930's It was the Dry season of 1931 and I had recently been purchased by a young, tall man from a small tribe in Southern Sudan. He purchased me as a wedding gift for his new wife, who was later revealed to be the one who was my primary milker. When I was taken back to their tribal area, I was in complete surprise at how many other cattle there were surrounding me. I had never seen anything like it, as I had been bought up in a relatively poor community. The fact that there were many other cattle neighbouring me gave me the impression that the tribe I had now been apart of, must have been fairly rich. I couldn't help but wonder why I was chosen out of all the other cattle, to be taken back to this place. I thought that it might've been because I was relatively plump and fat, and this worried me. My owner would occasionally rub ash across my back and speak of ceremonial chants, in a very loud and daunting matter. It

Carol Gilligan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Carol Gilligan - Essay Example Moral development has both an intellectual and an impulsive aspect. Children must learn what is right and what is wrong. Then, as soon as they are old enough, they must be given explanations of why this is right and what is wrong.† (Theories of Moral Development -Personality Theories) It is an established fact that the elderly people keep more ethical standards in their life compared to youths. The childhood, adolescent period and the youth period are normally considered as immature periods and hence morality may not have much place in such periods. The ethical standards of a human being will improve immensely as he grows. He will be capable of segregating the rights and the wrongs as he goes past his 30’s or 40’s, more than ever. Carol Gilligan, a famous psychologist has researched a lot â€Å"Gilligans primary focus came to be moral development in girls. Her interest in these dilemmas grew as she interviewed young men thinking about enlisting for the Vietnam War and women who were contemplating abortions.† (Carol Gilligan (1936-present)) She was the first person who revealed the importance of gender differences in developing morality. The attitude of girls and boys towards establishing relationships, caring others are different. The perception of the terms like caring and relationship are different for boys and girls. She believed that women were taught to care for other people and expect others to care for them. (Carol Gilligan (1936-present)) Boys have a different perception about caring. They may not be much concerned about caring others compared to girls. Girls are keener in establishing and sustaining relationships with others than boys. While teaching at Harvard, Carol Gilligan joined as a research assistant to famous psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg. Kohlberg is known for his research on moral development and his stage theory of moral development, justice and rights. â€Å"Kohlberg had applied Piagets theory to the development of moral thinking†

Volkswagen Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Volkswagen - Essay Example Furthermore, Porter’s Five Forces analysis and SWOT analysis is also conducted with regards to the internal environment of the company. In conclusion, the report proposes two specific recommendations to the Board of Directors after critically and comprehensively analyzing the strategic position of the business. It is suggested that Volkswagen take immediate measures to further enhance its position in the US which has delivered optimistic performance so far but indicates that further efforts are needed. It is also recommended that Volkswagen continue to explore emerging markets across the globe such as India while maintaining its position in China and Brazil. Table of Contents Executive Summary 2 1.Introduction 3 2.Analysis of Strategic Position 4 2.1Internal Audit 4 2.1.1Strategic Capabilities 5 2.1.2VRIN ANALYSIS 6 2.1.3Value Chain 8 2.2External Audit 9 2.2.1PESTEL Analysis 10 2.2.2The Five Forces Analysis 12 2.3SWOT Analysis 15 2.3.1TOWS Matrix 16 3.Conclusion and Recommenda tion 17 1. Introduction Volkswagen is a manufacturer of automobiles originating from Germany; its global presence as an automaker extends to various parts of the world henceforth, contributing towards its ranking as the 14th largest company in the world (Forbes 2013). Volkswagen Group’s mission is to act as a responsible business and maximize the benefits that it wishes to offer to its customers. By promoting the concepts of sustainability and social responsibility the company aims to be the leader in the automotive industry by the year 2018. In order to achieve its objective the company has designed a group strategy to enhance its positioning within the market. This strategy extends to all realms of Volkswagen Group’s operations, such as sales and human resources. The company aims to augment its sales per unit to an impressive 10 million automobiles per annum and also boost its pre-tax profit margin to 8% (Volkswagen 2011). An analysis of the company’s external and internal environment and factors is imperative to assisting goal achievement. Therefore, for the purposes of this report these factors are discussed at length in the context of Volkswagen Group. 2. Analysis of Strategic Position 2.1 Internal Audit Volkswagen believes in implementing a responsible and accountable risk management framework, in order to ensure that its future activities and business operations are not adversely impacted by unforeseeable changes in the company’s external environment (Volkswagen 2007). For the purposes of tackling with the unpredictable situation of the industry, the Group Internal Audit holds the responsibility of reviewing and evaluating the risk management measures of the organization. This process of revision is governed by auditors who conduct comprehensive interviews with the management to assess the satisfactoriness of the conclusions with regards to risk management (Volkswagen 2007). The overall internal audit of the company conforms to the KonTraG, while, specific audits are conducted by German financial regulatory agency, BaFin to evaluate the financial department of Volkswagen (Volkswagen 2007). According to the Volkswagen Annual Report (2007), with regards to the governance of procedures related to the controlling function of management all rules, regulations and procedures presiding over the activities within the company are updated online; the Group Interna

An event that is a part of your experience Essay

An event that is a part of your experience - Essay Example My mom warned me about feeding the dog especially when its beef bones just bought from the store. On that day, my determination was to do the opposite of what my mother has instructed me. I was driven by the fact that my parents clearly instructed me not to feed the dog. As I walked to our backyard my heart started to beat harder and harder, my stomach grumbled, my legs felt weak almost not able to walk, my hands felt like they could not carry the few pounds of beef. As I got closer and closer to the tree where my dog was resting, I got more and more anxious. Snowy almost looked like a lion looking for its prey; he slowly lifted its head off the ground as he caught the smell of the fresh beef, which still had a strong scent of blood. He stood up almost about to attack me but, we both knew hurting each other is not a priority. I came closer and closer, I opened the bag and I saw Snowy drooling all over the place ready to eat but looking up at me as if asking for my permission. I said â€Å"go ahead boy it is for you; you look hungry† gave him a little pat on the head and took a few steps back. Noticing a bone a little far away, and my dog tied I thought it could not reach it, so I pushed the bone where he could reach it. I started tossing the bone back and forth, as I waited for Snowy to eat. Suddenly his animal instincts took over as he lurched to protect his old bone. Within the next 5 seconds, the unexpected happened. My dog bit me, and my leg was bleeding. I did not feel the pain at all; it was almost as if a doctor gave me a shot, no pain at all just shocked. I looked at my dog straight in the eyes I could see his regret, his pain and anger as well as a tear. I loved my dog, but at the same time hated him for putting me in this situation. Until then I never realized that dogs could cry just as humans did, but that showed me that not only that Snowy loved me but also felt the same pain I do when it gets hurt. That

Master Degree program Essay Example for Free

Master Degree program Essay Education is a key to individual development. It is imperative that one should not to cease learning new things in life, whether within the confines of the classroom or on the outside world. A teacher having a Master’s degree provides additional opportunity for students to widen their perspective and understanding of different academic fields, from economics, politics to the sciences, which will later on contribute to their success. One can easily distinguish a difference in the mode of teaching between a teacher with a Master’s degree and one who has not. The former enables him/her to elaborate topics and lessons into its specifics, not just general ones, thus enabling the students a clearer grasp of the lesson. One must not rely only to theories specified in the textbooks and lecture notes. Hence, a teacher with a graduate degree has the advantage of experience over a holder of Bachelor degree only. Making research papers, dissertations and projects are expertise of a Master’s degree holder, thus it enables him/her to teach what he/she has learned to his students. In addition to these, a Master Degree program hones the skills and capabilities of teachers taking up the degree making him/her more aware of the different areas needed to be developed relative to student learning in the classroom. The fact is that it is not only the students that benefit from having a teacher with a Master’s Degree but the teacher him/herself. Individual earnings and productivity are related to educational attainment, thus one having this degree feels more accomplished and secure in terms of intellect, financial security, as well as emotionally. Education is indispensable to one’s character and intellectual development.

Task 1 Essay Example for Free

Task 1 Essay Second it will discuss the definition of Constructive Discharge and its relevance to this claim. Third it will provide the specific areas under the Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Fourth it will offer recommendations and supporting legal references. Fifth it will recommend proactive steps to avoid future legal issues in relationship to the Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. And finally any references used in this research will be provided. A. Definition of Constructive DischargeSummary of Claim and history:In January 1, 2013 a new policy was implemented to support exponential company growth. This policy impacted all production employees. The impacted employees were notified of the changes two months in advance of the January 2013 implementation to allow for assimilation and training on the new shifts schedules and there impacts. Production employee schedules were shifted from a Monday through Friday schedule, 8 hour shift to a Monday through Sunday schedule, 12 hour shift, four working days can occur any day of the week. This schedule requires all production employees to work on holy days regardless of religious affiliation as the production now runs seven days a week. Office staff members were not impacted by this policy change. AA23 quit on January 2, 2013 after new policy was in effect. There was no reason given in the resignation as to why AA23 was resigning or that it was related to having to work on holy days. AA23 filed a Claim #1-2013 with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) on February 3, 2013. Toy Company was notified via our legal department on March 10, 2013. Constructive discharge is when an employee resigns from their job because the employer makes conditions so bad or lets bad conditions continue; that a reasonable employee would also have resigned in the same conditions. If proven it is treated as an unlawful firing. There are rules that an employee must follow in order to make a claim of constrictive discharge. First they must provide written notification of the cause of their resignation. The employer than has 15 days to provide a written response to the allegations. This type of claim is very difficult to prove; especially in Washington state which is an â€Å"At Will† state. â€Å"At Will† means that the either the employee or the employer is free to sever a working relationship for any reason; as long as the separation was not due to discrimination. Or there was a contract in place that overrides the â€Å"At Will† mandate. There are two main considerations when working with a constructive discharge claim. The first is regarding whether other production employees felt compelled to resign. The second is whether Toy Company’s intent was to force AA23’s resignation with the new production work schedule (Finnegan, 2013). The following assumptions are being made at this time: 1) there haven’t been any other resignations reported that are related to this issue. 2) The documented intent of the schedule change was created to address increased demand not to create religious discrimination. ) The claimant filed the claim with EEOC. 4) The claimant didn’t follow the company procedures to report and resolve issues. B. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (relevant areas)Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was created to address the civil rights conflicts that were occurring during this 1960†™s. It is considered one of the most important pieces of legislation related to Civil Rights. This act was setup to address discrimination of protected classes (e. g. African Americans, Asian, Americans, Latinos, Native Americans, and women). The part of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that applies to employment decisions; mandates that employment decisions not be based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin (Gmoez-Mejia amp; Cardy, 2013). † Discrimination is about the making of distinctions; in the context of human resources, it is about the making of distinctions among people. There are two type of discrimination. Disparate treatment is when an employee is treated differently because of his protected status. Adverse impact is when the same standard is applied across the board; however it impacts a protected class more (Gmoez-Mejia amp; Cardy, 2013). In the case of #1-2013 adverse impact could apply to the shift changes that were implemented in January 2013. As the shift changes applied to all production employees. This could be construed as unintentional discrimination. However we haven’t had any other complaints to date. The company must reasonably accommodate religious beliefs or practices; unless it creates undue hardship (e. g. costly, compromises workplace safety, decreases workplace efficiency, infringes on the rights of other employees, or requires other employees to do more than their share of potentially hazardous or burdensome work). There are several ways to make accommodations (e. g. flexible scheduling, voluntary shift substitutions or swaps, job reassignments, and modifications to workplace policies or practices) (Religious Discrimination, 2013). C. Recommendations for Toy Company response. The facts before us are that Toy Company provided information on the new schedule several months before it was implemented. AA23 or any other employee didn’t inform Toy Company of any issues with the new schedule before the implementation at the beginning of 2013. When AA23 resigned AA23 did not document the reason for the resignation as due to scheduling impacts impacting religious beliefs either in writing or in person to the appropriate Human Resources personnel. Since this schedule change impacted all production employees it clearly was not created to personally force AA23 to resign. The EEOC will likely find in favor of the company and not send the case to trial. However it is in our best interest to work with AA23 and try to resolve this case through conciliation. This will require us to enter mediation with the EEOC, AA23, and company representatives. C1. Three legal references that support recommendations 1. In Liebermann V. Genesis Health Care – Franklin Woods Center (2012), Grace Liebermann worked at Genesis Health Care. Ms. Liebermann started working there in August of 2010. Ms. Liebermann constantly stated that she Jewish and needed to leave early on Fridays. Genesis agreed with the understanding that she would work a full 40 hours a week. Almost immediately her schedule became an issue. She repeatedly emailed her supervisor to leave earlier and earlier on each Friday. Each time attributing to her daycare’s adherence to the Sabbath. The court ruled in favor of the defendant; due to the fact that her issue was due to daycare requirements not religious requirements. This supports our claim because AA23 has not previously stated any issues due to religious observances. 2. In Pennsylvania State Police V. Suders (2004), a formal complaint was filed by Suders citing that she was subjective to sexual harassment by her supervisors. Suders’ hostile work environment claim was untenableas a matter of law, the District Court stated, because she â€Å"unreasonably failed to avail herself of the PSP’s internal procedures for reporting any harassment. †¦Resigning just two days after she first mentioned anything about harassment to Equal Employment Opportunity Officer Smith-Elliott, the court noted, Suders had â€Å"never given [the PSP] the opportunity to respond to [her] complaints. † Ibid (Pennsylvania State Police V. Suders, 2004). As with our claim Suders never notified the State Police of the se xual harassment issues by utilizing the available internal grievance procedure provided by her employer. This supports our claim because AA23 has not previously stated any issues due to religious observances. It also supports our position that this is not a constructive discharge case because As with Suder and the PSP, Toy story didn’t specifically single out AA23 with the new schedule policy to force her to quit and no other employees have complained let alone quit. 1. In Johnson V. Lancaster-Lebanon Intermediate Unit 13 (2012), Barbara Johnson brought charges of disability discrimination and hostile work environment. Johnson had epilepsy and was asked to provide additional information from her neurologist to ensure that she would be able to manage volatile situations in here classroom. After she was not able to provide that information an additional meeting was setup to discuss the schools concerns over this issue. The plaintiff choose to resign and treat it as a constructive discharge. The defendant requested a summary judgment which was granted due to insufficient support for her claims with the court determining that just because she was uncomfortable and was being asked to provide more information than other employees it did not mean she was constructively discharged. AA23 may have felt uncomfortable with the new schedule and may have even felt harassed; but AA23 didn’t follow internal procedures to report her concerns. A reasonable person would not have expected that a change in the work schedule for the whole production area was created to force AA23’s or anyone’s resignation. C2. Recommend steps to avoid future legal issues around Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 1. Review internal grievance policies and procedures. i. Ensure that all complaints are put into writing ii. Ensure that all complaints are responded to with 48 hours. Either to start an investigation or to provide a response. iii. Provide anonymous reporting phone number 2. Train all managers and supervisors on internal grievance polies and procedures. 3. Post grievance polies and procedures all general work areas and online on Toy Company internal employee site. 4. When considering schedule or other changes include make sure decisions are informed through the lens of the Title VII of the Civil Rights Act and other appropriate acts. Include HR personal in these discussions to ensure compliance with laws. D. ReferencesFinnegan, S. 2013). Constructive Dishcarge Under Tittl VII and the ADEA. The University of Chicago Law Review, 561-562. Grace Liebermann V. Genesis Health Care Franklin Woods Center, CCB-11-2770 (District Court of Maryland 2013). Johnson V. Lacaster-Lebabib Intermediate Unit 13, 11-cv-01598 (District Court for the Eastren District of Pennsyvania 2012). Pennsylvania State Police V. Suders, 542 US 129 (Supreme Court 2004). Religious Di scrimination. (2013, 03 24). Retrieved from U. S. Equal EMployment Opportunity Commision: http://www. eeoc. gov/laws/types/religion. cfm | | |

Brief History of Microbiology

Brief History of Microbiology 1- How Can Microbes Be Classified? Fungi, Protozoa, Algae, Prokaryotes and other organisms of importance to microbiologists B- The Golden Age of Microbiology 1- Is Spontaneous Generation Of Microbial Life Possible? Redis Experiment, Needhams Experiment, Spallanzanis Experiment, Pasteurs Experiment. CHAPTER (1): A BRIEF HISTORY OF MICROBIOLOGY Microbiology is the study of organisms and agents too small to be seen clearly by the naked eye. It is the study of microorganisms, or germs or microbes. However, some of these microorganisms are large and visible by our naked eye such as mushrooms, brown algae, and lichens. Viruses, bacteria, algae, fungi, and protozoa belong to microorganisms. Life would not exist without microorganisms. Plants depend on microorganisms to help them obtain their nitrogen they need from air. Animals such as cows and sheep need microorganisms in order to digest the cellulose in their diets. Our ecosystem rely on microorganisms to enrich soil, degrade wastes and supports life. Without microbial recyclers, the world would be buried under dead organisms. We use beneficial microorganisms to make our food such as cheese, yoghurt, bread, to develop our vaccines, hormones, vitamins and antibiotics. The human body is home to billions of microorganisms, many of which help keep us healthy. Microorganisms are not only an essential part of our lives; they are quite literally a part of us. Microorganisms can be both beneficial and harmful (infectious disease agents) to humans, animals and plants. Some harmful microorganisms also do cause diseases, from the common cold to AIDS. The threats of bioterrorism and new or re-merging infectious diseases are real problem. We will explore all the roles (both harmful and beneficial) that microorganisms play in our lives in this fascinating course. Importance of bacteria Bacteria can be categorized into harmful and useful bacteria, while some bacteria are non harmful-non useful. Harmful bacteria Bacteria cause some major diseases to humans, animals and plants. Among these diseases: cholera, typhoid, tetanus, pneumonia, tuberculosis and meningitis. Some pathogenic bacteria produce poisonous chemicals called toxins which affect certain parts of the host body. In food industry, bacteria cause spoilage of food and food poising. Useful bacteria Bacteria produce antibiotics which for the treatment of diseases. Bacteria provide enzymes for biological washing powders. Bacteria are used as microbial insecticides protecting crops from insect pests. Bacteria are used to leach out metals from some low grade ores such as copper and gold. Bacteria contribute greatly to food industry (butter, cheese, and yogurt). Certain bacteria are used to convert lactose (milk sugar) into lactic acid. Certain bacteria are used to convert alcohol into vinegar. Â  Bacteria have an essential role in the natural cycles of matter. In the soil, bacteria affect fertility, structure and productivity of corps. One of the most important roles of bacteria is the breakdown of dead organisms and organic wastes into its basic inorganic parts. Carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen, and sulfur are some of the most important materials returned to the soil and atmosphere. Such cycling of materials could not occur in the absence of certain bacteria. 9. As a source of food (single cell protein (SCP). Bacteria are a good source of (SCP) with plenty of food and space. (SCP can be produced using bacteria growing in waste paper, pollutants or any food waste product). The Early Years Of Microorganisms The early years of microbiology brought the first observations of microbial life, and the initial efforts to organize them into logical classification. Early investigators suspected the existence of microorganisms and their role in disease development even before microorganisms were detected. The first person observed and described microorganisms was Antony van Leeunwenhoek (The Father of Bacteriology and Protozoology) (Dutch) in 1674. He was a tailor and a lens grinder. He used to manufacture lenses to examine the quality of the clothes. He invented simple microscope in 1674 and he observed, drew, and measured large numbers of minute living organisms including bacteria and protozoa in pond water. He also described the motion, morphology and diversity of bacteria and protozoa. How Can Microbes Be Classified? Shortly after Leeunwenhoek made his discoveries, the Swedish botanist Linnaeus developed a taxonomic system-that is a system for naming plants and animals and grouping similar organisms together. Linnaeus and other scientists of that period grouped all organisms into either animal kingdom or the plant kingdom. Today biologists use the five kingdoms classification system and the three kingdoms classification system. The microorganisms that Leeunwenhoek described can be grouped into five basic categories: fungi, protozoa, algae, prokaryotes and small animals. The only microbes not described by Leeunwenhoek are viruses which are too small to be seen without an electron microscope. Cells are of two types: 1- Prokaryotic cells (pro = before, karyon = nut or kernel). Example: Bacteria (i) Organisms very simple in shape. (ii) The cells lack true membrane delimited nucleus. 2- Eukaryotic cells (Eu = true, karyon = nut or kernel). Examples: Algae, fungi, protozoa, higher plants and animals. (i) Morphologically more complex than prokaryotes and larger in size. (ii) Organisms with true nucleus. They have a membrane enclose nucleus. . Biologists have divided living organisms into five kingdoms: Kingdom Monera or Prokaryote: includes prokaryotic organisms (Bacteria and archea) and Cyanobacteria (the blue-green bacteria, formerly called blue-green algae). Kingdom Protista: Include either unicellular or colonial eukaryotic organisms that lack true tissues (Protozoa, small algae, and lower fungi). Kingdom Fungi: Includes eukaryotic organisms with absorptive nutrition and often multinucleate. Fungi includes moulds (filamentous fungi) and yeasts (unicellular fungi). Kingdom Animalia: Multicellular animals with ingestive nutrition (Vertebrates and invertebrates). Kingdom Plantae: Multicellular plants with walled eukaryotic cells and photosynthetic ability. Viruses do not fit into the classification of living organisms (five kingdoms classification system) because they are dependent on other cells for their reproduction (obligate parasites). Nevertheless viruses are also studied by microbiologists. The recent classification divided organisms into 3 kingdoms based on the analysis of the 16S RNA. Bacteria (True bacteria or Eubacteria). Archaea (Archaeobacteria). Eukarya (All eukaryotic organisms). Fungi (Mycology) Fungi are organisms whose cells are eukaryotic with a true nucleus surrounded by a nuclear membrane. Fungi differ from animals by having cell walls. Fungi are different from plants because they are heterotrophic (obtain their food from other organisms which is different from plants (obtain their food by themselves through photosynthesis i.e. autotrophic). Microscopic fungi include molds (filamentous fungi) and yeasts (unicellular fungi). Molds are multicellular organisms that are grow as long filaments called hyphae that intertwine to make up the body of the mold. Molds reproduce by sexual and asexual spores which produce new individuals. Yeasts are unicellular and they reproduce by budding. Many types of fungi are beneficial and some are also very harmful to humans causing many diseases. Mushroom is a typical example of macroscopic fungi. Some mushrooms are also poisonous and can cause death. Protozoa (Protozoology or Parasitology) Protozoa are single celled eukaryotic microorganisms with true nucleus that are similar to animals in their nutritional needs and cellular structure. The suffix protozoa in Greek mean (the first animals). Most protozoa are capable of locomotion through pseudopodia, cilia or flagella. Protozoa typically live freely in water, but some live inside animal hosts, where they can cause diseases. Most protozoa reproduce asexually, however some can reproduce sexually. Algae (Phycology) Algae are unicellular or multicellular photosynthetic autotrophic organisms. Algae are categorized on the basis of their pigmentation, storage products and their cell walls. Large algae commonly called seaweeds and kelps are common in the oceans. Unicellular algae are common in freshwater ponds, streams and lakes and in the oceans as well. They are the major food source of small aquatic and marine animals and provide most of the worlds oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis. Prokaryotes (Bacteriology) Prokaryotic microorganisms are unicellular microbes that lack nuclei. There are two kinds of prokaryotes: true bacteria (Eu-bacteria) and archaea (Archaeobacteria). Bacterial cell walls are composed of a polysaccharide called peptidoglycan, although some bacteria lack cell walls. Bacteria without cell walls are called mycoplasma. The cell walls of archaea lack peptidoglycan and instead are composed of other polymers. Most bacteria and archaea are much smaller than the eukaryotic microorganisms. True bacteria are found in all environments, however, archaea are only found in extreme environments (Difficult or harsh environments) (e.g. High or low temperature, high or low pH, high salinity, high pressure). Other Organisms Of Importance To Microbiologists Microbiologists also study parasitic worms which range in size from microscopic forms to adult tapeworms over 7 meters in length. The only type of microbes that remained hidden from Leeunwenhoek and other early microbiologists are viruses, viroids and prions which are much smaller than the smallest prokaryotic microorganisms and are not visible by light microscopy. Viruses could not seen until the electron microscope was invented in 1932. All complete viruses are acellular (not composed of cells) obligatory parasites composed of small amounts of genetic material (genome) (RNA or DNA never both) surrounded by a protein coat. The incomplete virus (Prions) consists only of protein coat and there is no nucleic acid and only attacks human and animals. While the incomplete virus (Virioid) consists only of nucleic acid and there is no protein coat and only attacks plants. Leeunwenhoek fist reported the existence of microorganisms in 1674, but microbiology did not develop significantly as a field of study for almost two centuries. There were a number of reasons for this delay. First, Leeunwenhoek was a suspicious and secretive man. Though he built over than 400 microscopes, he never trained an apprentice, and he never sold or gave away a microscope. When Leeunwenhoek died, the secret of creating superior microscope was lost. It took almost 100 years for scientists to make microscopes of equivalent quality. Another reason that microbiology was slow to develop as a science is that scientists in the 1700s considered microbes to be curiosities of nature and in-significant to human affairs. But in the late 1800s, scientists began to adopt a new philosophy, one that demand experimental proof rather than mere acceptance of traditional knowledge. This fresh philosophical foundation, accompanied by improved microscopes, new laboratory techniques, and a drive to answer a series of important questions, propelled microbiology to the forefront as a scientific discipline. The Golden Age of Microbiology For about 50 years during what is now called The Golden Age of Microbiology, scientists were driven by the search for answers o the following 4 questions: Is spontaneous generation of microbial life possible? What causes fermentation? What causes diseases? How can we prevent infection and disease? Competition among scientists, who were striving to be the first to answer these questions, drove exploration and discovery in microbiology during the late 1800s and early 1900s. These scientists discoveries and the fields of study they initiated continue to shape the course of microbiological research today. 1 Is Spontaneous Generation Of Microbial Life Possible? In the ancient times, many peoples believed that living organisms could develop from non-living matter, and they named this phenomenon as spontaneous generation (abiogenesis). Aristotle believed that simple invertebrates could arise by spontaneous generation. He also believed that frogs and shrimps could arise from mud, insects from the morning dew and maggots from decaying meat. The validity of this theory came under challenge in the 17th century. Redis Experiment (1626-1697). The spontaneous generation conflict was finally challenged by the Redi (1688), who carried out a series of experiments using decayed meat and he studies the ability of meat to produce maggots spontaneously. He concluded that maggots do not arise by spontaneous generation. In unsealed flask: The maggots covered the meat within few days. In the sealed flasks: The flies were kept away and no maggots appeared on the meat. In the gauze-covered flask: The flies were kept away and no maggots appeared on the meat, although a few maggots appeared on the top of the gauze. Needhams Experiment (1713-1781). He boiled beef broth in a sealed flask. Some days later he demonstrated that many of these flasks became cloudy and contained microorganisms. He thought that the organic matter in the meat contained a vital force that could give the properties of life from non-living matter. Since he heated the flasks he thought that the microorganisms is coming from the non living beef broth. Spallanzanis Experiment (1729-1799). Spallanzanis in 1799 reported results that contradicted Needhams findings. Spallanzani boiled some infusions for one hour and sealed the vials by melting their slender necks closed. His infusion remained clear, unless he broke the seal and exposed the infusion to air, after which they became cloudy with microorganisms. He concluded three things: Needham had either failed to heat his vials sufficiently. Microorganisms exist in the air and can contaminate the experiments. Spontaneous generation of microorganisms does not occur. All living things arise from other living things. Criticisms of Spallanzanis work were: The sealed vials did not allow enough air for organisms to survive. The prolonged heating for long time (one hour) destroyed the Life force. The debate continued until the French chemist Louis Pasteur conducted experiments that finally solved the theory of spontaneous generation to rest. Pasteurs Experiment (1822-1895). In 1861, Pasteur (The Father of Microbiology) solved the spontaneous generation conflict. The Swan Neck Experiment Pasteur placed nutrient solutions in flasks heated their necks in a flame and drew them out in a variety of curved shapes, and he kept the ends of the neck open to the air. He then boiled the nutrient solutions for a few minutes and allowed them to cool. No microbial growth was observed; even the flask contents were exposed to the external air currents. Pasteur pointed out that no growth was observed because dust and germs had been collected on the walls of the curved pre-heated necks. If the necks were broken, microbial growth appeared. The results obtained by Pasteur were against the spontaneous generation theory. 2- What Causes Fermentation? Pasteur developed the pasteurization a process of heating the grape juice just enough to kill most contaminating bacteria without changing the juice backs qualities so it could then be inoculated with yeast to ensure that alcohol fermentation occurred. Pasteur thus began the field of industrial microbiology or biotechnology in which microbes are used to manufacture beneficial products. Today pasteurization is used routinely on milk to eliminate pathogenic bacteria that cause tuberculosis and is also used to eliminate pathogenic bacteria and fungi in juices and other beverages. Because of Pasteur many significant accomplishments in working with microbes, Pasture is considered the Father of Microbiology. 3- What Causes Diseases? Robert Koch (German Doctor) (the golden age of microbiology 1880-1920) was the first person to demonstrate the role of bacteria in causing anthrax disease in 1876. Kochs proof that Bacillus anthracis caused anthrax. Koch discovered that bacteria are responsible for causing a disease. This was called the germ theory of disease. The science of etiology (the study of causation of diseases) was dominated by Robert Koch. Koch established criteria for proving the causal relationship between a microorganism and a specific disease. These criteria are known as Koch postulates, and it can be summarized as follows: (i)- The organism should be constantly present in animals or plants suffering from the disease and should not be present in healthy individuals. (ii)- The organism must be cultivated in pure culture away from the animal or plant body. (iii)- Such a culture when inoculated into susceptible animals or plants should initiate the characteristic disease symptoms. (iv)- The organism should be re-isolated from these experimental animals or plants and cultured again in the laboratory, after which it should still be the same as the original organism. Koch also developed media suitable for the isolation of pure bacterial cultures from human body. He developed nutrient broth and nutrient agar media. In 1882 Koch has used these methods to isolate the bacteria that cause tuberculosis. During Kochs studies on bacterial pathogens, it became necessary to isolate suspected bacterial pathogens. At first, he cultured bacteria on sterile surfaces of cut, boiled potatoes. This was unsatisfactory because bacteria would not always grow well on potatoes because of the acidity of the potato tissues. He then tried to solidify regular liquid medium by adding gelatin. Separate bacterial colonies developed after the surface had been streaked with a bacterial sample. When the gelatin medium hardened, individual bacteria produced separate colonies. Despite its advantages, gelatin was not an ideal solidifying agent because it was digested by many bacteria and melted when the temperature rose above 28ÂÂÂ °C. Fannie Hesse suggested a better alternative. She suggested the use of agar as a solidifying agent. Agar is derived from red algae. Agar was not attacked by most bacteria and did not melt until reaching a temperature of 100ÂÂÂ °C unlike gelatin. Richard Petri developed the Petri dish (Plate) in 1887, a container for making solid culture media. This development made possible the isolation of pure cultures that contained only a single microorganism. Koch and his colleagues are also responsible for many other advances in laboratory microbiology, including the following: Simple staining techniques for bacterial cells and flagella. The first photomicrograph of bacteria. The first photograph of bacteria in diseased tissues. Techniques for estimating the number of bacteria in a solution based on the number of colonies that form after inoculation onto a solid surface. The use of steam to sterilize growth media. The use of Petri dishes to hold solid growth media. Aseptic laboratory techniques such as transferring bacteria between media using platinum wire that has been sterilized in a flame. Koch hypothesized that each bacterial colony consisted if the progeny of a single cell. Koch use laboratory animals to inject bacteria and study disease development. For these achievements, Koch is considered as the Father of the Microbiological laboratory. Grams stain Although Koch reported a simple staining technique in 1877, the Danish scientist Gram developed a more important staining method in 1884. His procedure which involves the application of series of dyes made some microbes blue and others red. The blue cells are called the Gram positive and the red cells are called the Gram negative. We now use Gram Stain to separate bacteria into these two large groups. The gram stain is still the most widely used staining technique. It is one of the first steps carried out in any laboratory where bacteria are being identified. 4 How Can We Prevent Infection And Disease? 1 Semmelweis and Hand washing Semmelweis was a physician began requiring medical students to wash hands with chlorinated lime water. 2 Listers Antiseptic Technique Joseph Lister (1867), an English surgeon found indirect evidence that microorganism were agents of human disease. He worked on the prevention of wound infection. He developed a system of antiseptic surgery designed to prevent microorganism from entering wounds. Instruments were heat sterilized and phenol was used on surgical dressings and sprayed over the surgical area. He provided a strong evidence for the role of microorganisms in disease development because phenol which killed bacteria also prevented wound infections. 3 Nightingale and Nursing Nightingale was an English nurse and she is the founder of modern nursing and she introduced cleanliness and antiseptic techniques into nursing practices. 4 Snow and Epidemiology John Snow an English physician plays a key role ion setting standards for good public hygiene to prevent the spread of infectious diseases. His study was the foundation for two branches of microbiology (infection control) and epidemiology (study of the occurrence, distribution and spread of disease in humans). 5 Jenners Vaccine On 1796, Edward Jenner used cowpox-infected material to successfully vaccinate people against human small pox. He names the process vaccination after Vaccinia, the virus that causes cowpox. Jenner invented vaccination or immunization. In honor of Jenners work with cowpox, Pasteur used the term vaccine to refer to all weakened protective strains of pathogens. 6 Ehrlichs magic bullets and Chemotherapy Ehrlich found that chemicals could be used to kill microorganisms. He discovered chemicals active against trypanosomes the protozoan that causes sleeping sickness and against Treponema that cause syphilis. His discoveries began the branch of chemotherapy. The Modern Age of Microbiology 1 How Do Genes work? Over the past 40 yeasts, advances in microbial genetics developed into several new disciplines that are among the faster growing areas of scientific research today; including: Molecular biology A Molecular Biology Molecular biology combines aspects of biochemistry, cell biology and genetics to explain cell function at the molecular level. Molecular biologists are concerned with genome sequencing. A full understating of the genomes of organisms will result in practical ways to limit disease, repair genetic defects and enhance agricultural yield. B Recombinant DNA technology Molecular Biology is applied in recombinant DNA technology, commonly called genetic engineering which was first developed using microbial models. This includes the production of human insulin in genetically engineered bacteria. C Gene therapy An exciting new area of study is the use of recombinant DNA technology for gene therapy. This is a process that involves inserting a missing gene or repairing a defective gene in human cells. This procedure uses harmless viruses to insert a desired gene into host cells where it is incorporated into a chromosome and begins to function normally. 2 What Roles Do Microorganisms Play in the Environment? The study of microorganisms in their natural environment is called environmental Microbiology or microbial ecology. 3 How We Defend Against Disease? Advancements in chemotherapy were made in the 1900s with the discovery of numerous substances such as penicillin and sulfa drugs that inhibit bacteria. 4 The Scope And Relevance of Microbiology Microbiology has both basic aspects and applied aspects. A scientist working in the field of microbiology is called a microbiologist. Many microbiologists are interested in the biology of microorganisms. They may focus on a specific group of microorganisms and are called: Virologist (Virology is the study of viruses), Bacteriologist (Bacteriology is the study of bacteria), Phycologist (Phycology is the study of algae), Mycologist (Mycology is the study of fungi), and Protozoologist (Protozoology is the study of protozoa). Other microbiologist work in other fields such as microbial physiology, microbial cytology, microbial ecology, and microbial taxonomy. Other microbiologists have more practical applied fields such as medical microbiology, food and dairy microbiology, and public health microbiology. Medical Microbiology: Deals with human and animal diseases. Agricultural Microbiology: Deals with the application of microorganisms in agriculture. Public health Microbiology: Deals with the control of the spread of diseases. Food and dairy Microbiology: Deals with the application of microorganisms by man to make foods such as cheese, bread, and other important products. Industrial Microbiology: Deals with the industrial application of microorganisms such as the production of vaccines, antibiotics, vitamins and enzymes. Microbial Ecology or Environmental microbiology: Deals with the relationship between microorganisms and their environments. Microbial physiology and Biochemistry: Deals with the study with physiology of microorganisms and the effects of physical and chemical agents on the survival of microorganisms. 6 What Will The Future Hold? What will microbiologists discover next? Among the questions for the next 50 years are the following: What is the physiology of life forms that can not be grown in laboratory and only known to us now by their nucleic acid sequences? Does life exist beyond planet Earth, and if so, what are its features? How can we reduce the threat of infectious diseases, especially those that can be used by bioterrorists?